Frustration, defined as, blocking ongoing goal directed behavior that may operate in a manner similar to provocation and serve both as an instigator and an external justification for violating normative constraint against aggression. Reactions of Frustration The first response to frustration, which needs to be delineated, is the emotional reaction. Frustration leads to some sort of negative emotional state. Two important properties are that the emotions are aversive, and that it produces or results in increased physiological arousal. The aversive nature means that the individual will be highly motivated or reduced in it. The increased around tends to increase the vigor or strength of whatever response is elicited and this arousal is implications for task performance. On the behavioral end, there are at least four major classes of behavior which can result from frustration. Probably the most common reaction, especially to mild frustration, isContinue reading
Modern Management Approaches
Managing Leadership
Basically, leadership is getting people to follow you. The moral and ethical considerations of leading are beyond the scope of this article, but their importance cannot be overstated. Unfortunately, much leadership is designed around a control/authority model. Many leaders, even the brightest, figure out what has to happen with things in the company, tell people what is needed for the desired results and then expect things to happen-a gross simplification of the process. You would be surprised how many leaders lead this way. In light of the psychological reality that people only do what they want to do, the current approach means that people follow and work only as hard as is necessary to avoid the consequences of disobedience. However, leadership can be a whole lot more than charting out a business strategy that others happen to follow. The most skilled leaders ask themselves, “What can I say or doContinue reading
Programme Budgeting
Programme Budgeting is mainly useful to government departments and non-profit organizations. In Programme Budgeting special emphasis is laid on formulation of different budgets for different programmes. It utilizes a planning and budgeting process in an output-oriented programme format; which is oriented to its objectives to facilitate developing and evaluating alternatives. It leads to the allocation of resources over a planning period. Programme Budgeting integrates all of the organizations planning activities and budgeting into total system. Programme Budgeting Process First, programmes are identified for achieving different goals of the organizations. Then, each programme is divided into different elements. Resources such as materials, men, machines, utilities, etc., are allocated to various programmes over the period. The emphasis is continuously placed on analysis of alternatives (including existing programmes) and estimating cost of accomplishing objectives and fulfilling purposes and needs. The steps involved in the programme budgeting may be listed as follows: Identification ofContinue reading
Performance Budgeting
Performance Budget may be defined as a budget based on functions, activities and projects. Performance Budgeting may be described as a budgeting system, where under input costs are related to the end results, are related to the performance. Performance Budgeting is defined as the process of analyzing, identifying, simplifying and crystallizing specific performance objectives of a job to be completed over a period, in the framework of the organizational objectives, the purpose and objectives of the job. It involves evaluation of the performance of the organization in the context of both specific as well as overall objectives of the organization. An overview of Performance Budgeting The performance management concepts for budget management practices produced a performance budgeting. Performance budgeting is a goal-oriented budget, it is based on achievement of the government’s public sector objectives and it is in budget preparation, control and evaluation of a budget management model. In contrastContinue reading
Mintzberg Cultural and Environmental Schools of Thought
Henry Mintzberg had arranged strategy approaches into ten school of thoughts, each had its own strategy characteristic toward organization. Two of these schools: “cultural” school and “environmental” school are going to be taken into consideration. The main features of each school will be introduced firstly before going on their differences and similarities. Nowadays, culture within a business is necessary to preserve its own power and imagine. It groups individuals effectively into an organization. Mintzberg considered organizational culture as key resource of competitive advantage. It also affects to business changes in decision making style or dominating the value of service, quality, and innovation and so on. Environmental school, on the other hand, Mintzberg, 1998 noticed that “Environmental school first grew out of so-called: contingency theory, which described the relationships between particular dimensions of the environment and specific attributes of the organization”. It means that, in contingency view, environmental reacts to theContinue reading
Whittington’s Classical and Processual Schools of Thought
Strategic management is becoming more important for business construction. Especially, the changing in business environment could threat to organization’s stability. Whittington (2000) introduced four approaches to strategy which are classical approach, systemic approach, evolutionary approach and processual approach. Whilst planning are made through market changes adaptability in classical school, strategies must be updated daily to survive in unpredictable market in evolutionary school. Different from the two approaches, Whittington, 2000 mentioned: “ Processualist emphasis the sticky imperfect nature of all human life, pragmatically accommodating strategy to the fallible processes of both organizations and markets. Systemic approach is relativistic, regarding the ends and means of strategy as inescapably linked to the cultures and powers of the local social systems in which it takes place” Whittington noted that the main principle of “processual” is to accept unattainable ideal of rational fluid action and work with it. The Approach was laid by American CarnegieContinue reading